Night Essay

Compare the hanging of the â€Å"youth from Warsaw† and the hanging of the â€Å"sad eyed angel† and explain, using evidence from there and elsewhere in Night, why Elie Reacted differently to the two hangings. Elie Wiesel’s Night is a memoir of his horrifying childhood experiences of suffering as a Jew in the concentration camps. Eliezer was found to suffer in many camps, and during this time he witnessed the daily sufferings and deaths of many humans. His faith faltered as a result, and after so much pain he grew apathetic to the withering away of mortal life. By the end of the book nothing really surprises Elizer anymore because he knew anything could happen at any moment. However, Eliezer’s reaction towards hanging of the â€Å"youth from Warsaw† was different from the hanging of the â€Å"sad eyed angel. † Eliezer’s faith faltered daily when he witnesses the death of many innocent lives including the hanging of the youth from Warsaw, but he never loses his hope or questions the existence of God until he witnesses the hanging of the â€Å"sad eyed angel. † Eliezer witnesses many death during his time in concentration camps, and he never wept once, even when he witnesses the hanging of the youth from Warsaw. This young boy is described as tall and strong. Supposedly, he had stolen something during the alert in the concentration camp. Looking back at his execution, Eliezer expresses his feeling about the hanging saying that it â€Å"upset him deeply† (Wiesel 62) in a way quite distinct from his knowledge of the thousands who died daily in the camps. Elizer was disturb by the hanging because he did not lost all of his faith and hope, he still have humanity so that’s why he feels upset when he witness people die, deep in his heart faith and hope were just broken, now after witness the hanging of the youth from Warsaw he found the broken pieces of hope that is why that evening after the execution he finds â€Å"the soup tasted better than ever† (Wiesel 63). Another reason that Eliezer finds the soup taste better is because he was actually grateful that it was not him or his father toward the execution. Elizer realize that death is everywhere in concentration camp, and it could be either him or his father next time standing on the gallows. He is thankful that he still alive at that moment and can is still eating his ration of soup, although he knows that he could be in line next to get hang in the gallows. Eliezer also felt the youth from Warsaw brought the death on themselves. He realizes that there are rules in the concentration camp that you can never disobey, if you break the rules in the camp, you will be killed. Where is merciful God, where is He? †(Wiesel 64) It was another day when Eliezer return from work and roll call begins. There were three gallows for three prisoners that are going to be hang on the gallows for conspiring to blow up the electric power station, but among the three prisoners there is a little pipel in the middle, the sad eyed angel. At every hanging, no one in the audience will ever shed a tear or weep, but the hanging of the sad eyed angel affected not only Eliezer but many others. During the execution all eyes were on the child, the two men died immediately, but the child was too light â€Å"and so he remained for more than half an hour, lingering between life and death. † (Wiesel 65) The hanging pained Eliezer so much and it makes him wonder how God can be present in a world with such cruelty, he question the present of God and when he heard a voice saying â€Å"For God’s sake, where is God? † (Wiesel 65) he answers â€Å"Where He is? This is where –hanging here from this gallows†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Wiesel 65). Following the death of the sad eyed angel Eliezer thinks that was the death of God as well. â€Å"That night, the soup tasted of corpses† (Wiesel 65), after witness the hanging of the sad eyed angel Wiesel finds the soup tasted like corpses and also like death, the death of God. The sad eyed angel represent a symbol of silent which God is presents as in the novel Night. God was a symbol of silence in the novel because when Eliezer and the other Jewish people cries out for God’s aid and mercy, their please were left unanswered. The God in Night did not save them from cruelty and death, God has remained silence throughout the novel, so when the angel was hanged Eliezer’s relates the death of angel to the death of God, as he meant that God was hanging upon the gallows and had abandoned them. Eliezer realizes that the Nazis were coming closely to destroy his faith in God and so he was unable to enjoy anything because he thinks that life, hope, and joy could not be reach because all goodness had been destroyed. â€Å"I’ve got more faith in Hitler than in anyone else. He’s the only one who’s keeping his promises, all his promises to the Jewish people† Wiesel 81) Hitler the ultimate evil was conquering the good Jewish people every day through death and destruction. To Eliezer there was no hope for life and no chance for survival. He thinks God had abandoned them because there seems to be no end to evil. After witness the hanging of the sad eyed angel, Eliezer was constantly being reminded of death, he feels like death was everywhere in the camp, and when he were forced to watch the hanging of the sad eyed angel, which appeared to be innocent and full of hope, he feels that he was forced to watch innocence and hope die in front of him. As Eliezer watched the young pipel struggle between life and death he felt that the boy was innocent and he did not deserve to suffer. Eliezer and the young pipel were around the same age, so when he witnesses the hanging of the young pipel he felt as he shared the pipel’s pain and suffering and that he was suffering from a slow painful spiritual death as well. The hanging of the young pipel pained Eliezer so much because he knew he could not rescue him. In Elie Wiesel’s Night the author present a significance of the hanging and the brutal elements of the surroundings in the concentration camp. He express that evening â€Å"the soup tasted better than ever† (Wiesel 63) after he witness the hanging of the youth from Warsaw, and yet after he witness the hanging of the sad eyed angel â€Å"the soup tasted of corpse. † It was trying to present how Eliezer’s slowly loses his hope and faith in God. Eliezer’s faith was being challenged under such brutal condition, and many do not get their beliefs put to the test in such extreme condition as Eliezer did, and this leads Eliezer to question his faith. The meaning of hanging in this novel represent the bad conquers good, death and evil become apparent. The goodness that had been present prior to concentration camp had been destroyed through death, evil and abandonment. Every killing that Eliezer witness deteriorated his faith and finally after witness the sad eyed angel, it was the end of hope for Eliezer, he finally understood the murderous nature of concentration camp, and he could not walk away unaffected by the hanging. At last, Eliezer walked away as a completely different person than how he entered.

Nuclear and Coal Power: Which is Better

Today we are living in a world that is becoming increasingly more environmentally conscious, yet consuming more energy than ever. Having such high-energy demands creates many environmental issues, such as pollution, land exploitation, and the consumption of finite resources. In order to begin a true conservationalist society, solutions must be found that satisfy our growing energy needs, and reduce our impact on the environment. Right now we have many sources of energy, of which nuclear and coal are the predominant energy sources of today. Since these are the major energy sources a logical step in the solution process is discovering the pros and cons of each source. Coal energy is very inexpensive and easy to recover, and accounts for approximately 40% of electric energy produced worldwide, down from 74% in 1937. In order to derive energy coal must first be mined, then transported to another location where the coal will be burned, which results in the release of toxic pollutants into the atmosphere. Coal energy is a significant contributor to both global warming and acid rain because of its high carbon and sulfur content. There also exist the harmful effects of both mining for the coal and of transporting the bulky product. There are several ways to mine for coal, the most significant of which are strip mining, and underground mining. Strip mining, as the name implies, requires massive amounts of soil be removed in order to expose the coal. Such actions leave enormous scars on the earth and require years for reclamation to occur. The eyesores created by mining underground are not as large however, the perils of underground mining have claimed hundreds if not thousands of miners lives in both accidents and diseases brought on by the extreme exposure to coal products. Then comes the extremely expensive task of transporting the coal from the mining sites to locations all around the world. Because of the bulky nature of coal, it requires a massive transportation system, which itself uses other fuels further contributing to the pollution problem. There seems to be little hope of decreasing the size of this operation, since it is entirely dependant upon the physical characteristics of the coal itself. Nuclear energy is the most concentrated source of energy currently available for use. The fuel to drive nuclear energy is also inexpensive, and nuclear energy creates the most compact waste of all the different types of energy. The major steps in the nuclear fuel cycle are as follows: 1. Mining of the ore; the danger of radiation exposures was long ignored however, the advancement of our knowledge of radioactivity has greatly reduced the risks involved with the mining process. 2.Milling; waste accounts for 99% of the resulting in great accumulations of mine tailings that have to be stored somewhere, the removal and storage of tailings still presents a problem. 5.Fuel Fabrication; once converted and enriched, the fuel is formed into ceramic balls and placed inside a tube, thus becoming a fuel rod. 6.Fuel Reprocessing; After the fuel rod is used up, it is placed underwater and stored for up to a year, after which the rod is disassembled and some of the leftover materials are reused in the enrichment phase. 7.Waste Management; Radioactive waste can have half-lives of tens of thousands of years, long-term solutions are needed. As of today waste in a concentrated liquid form is put in temporary depositories, with the hope of someday solidifying the waste so it can be stored for the long-term. From these steps, one can see the basic processes required for nuclear energy to occur. The extreme amounts of tailings present a huge hurdle to overcome, researchers are currently searching for new methods to obtain the ore, which are both less wasteful and cost efficient. However, one large benefit of nuclear energy is the ease of recycling many of the nuclear core wastes. There are no greenhouse or acid rain effects caused by the use of nuclear energy and the process itself has been thoroughly developed and understood by scientists. As with coal nuclear energy also has its drawbacks. First, nuclear plants are very expensive and require large amounts of capital before building can take place. Secondly, although the waste is very compact, the waste is also highly hazardous to the environment. And lastly there is the issue of nuclear meltdown, which is detrimental to life and the environment. This last issue of meltdown or other possible cases of public exposure is the single largest factor limiting further implementation of nuclear power around the world. People assume that nuclear energy is extremely unstable, when it is actually extremely stable. Coal power is much more hazardous than nuclear power, but people seem to be unwilling to accept nuclear energy and continue to use less safe coal energy. The transportation of nuclear energy is extremely safe. â€Å"No activity in the history of technology has as good a safety record and is accomplished with as little risk as the transportation of nuclear material.† Knowing such a fact as this might begin to persuade those who doubt the safety of nuclear energy, and possibly embrace this technology. With this brief look into the environmental crisis that human†s high energy needs have created, it is important for us to find a suitable solution that appeases our energy needs without destroying the environment any more. It is necessary to gauge the benefits against the risks of all of our energy sources, and determine which ones best suit our needs and the needs of the planet. We can no longer be an uneducated public, for the power governing which sources of energy are used ultimately lie in the hands of the public. Fear of what we do not understand is not the way to decide, people need to take the initiative to discover for themselves what is best for them, and more importantly what is best for the environment.

If Venerus Implements the Suggested Methodology?

If Venerus implements the suggested methodology, what would be the range of discount rates that AES would use around the world? * 12% discount rate was used for all projects * Venerus felt that this model worked fairly well In 1990s this model of capital budgeting was exported to projects overseas * model became increasingly strained with the expansions in Brazil and Argentina * because hedging key exposures such as regulatory or currency risk was not feasible * the ever-increasing complexity in the financing of international operations is another problem * when subsidiaries’ local currency real exchange rates depreciated, leverage at the subsidiary and holding company level effectively increased, and the subsidiaries struggled to service their foreign currency debt * Venerus’s solution to the problem had to be consistent, transparent, and accessible As a starting point, he considered the 15 representative projects shown in Exhibit 7a and, using the financial data in Ex hibit 7b * he endeavored to derive a weighted average cost of capital (WACC) for each project using a standard methodology: * he endeavored to derive a weighted average cost of capital (WACC) for each project using a standard methodology: WACC=EVre+DVrd1-? In order to calculate each WACC, Venerus knew he would have to measure all of the constituent parts for the 15 projects: * the cost of debt * the target capital structure * the local country tax rates * an appropriate cost of equity Venerus feared the use of a World CAPM might yield artificially low costs of capital.Similarly, Venerus did not advocate the use of a â€Å"Local CAPM† where beta measured the covariance of a project’s returns with a portfolio of local equities. Countries such as Tanzania or Georgia, where AES had projects, did not have any meaningful equity markets or local benchmarks. Still, he knew he had to find a way to capture the country-specific risks in foreign markets. 1. he calculated a cost of debt and cost of equity for each of the 15 projects using U. S. market data 2. he added the difference between the yield on local government bonds and the yield on corresponding U. S. Treasury bonds to both the cost of debt and the cost of equity Summary of WACC Calculations for AES

News paper report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

News paper report - Essay Example It is imperative that however many the articles or authors are trying to find the extent to which the damage has been by global warming; they are not giving out the immediate solution on the same. Global warming, is s form of climate change, causes the rise of water in the sea level. This is a dangerous process since it puts historical sites and the coastal lines in danger, since they are vulnerable to erosion. The nice historic sites of this country are in danger, address the Monday 17, March 2014 newspaper. They are worried that those beautiful sites that were built on coastlines are now in danger (Sawer 2014). This has been caused by global warming, were the sea tides and water level are ever increasing. Worried that these sites are under threat, the main message passed here is that, a way should be established to control the everyday worsening situation. Listing several sites that are under threat, the paper reveals the sites that immediate action should be taken by the government, so that they should be saved from the danger they are facing. The Monday 17, March 2014 is another paper that reveals how global warming has proved a threat to the Greenland. The paper demonstrates the ice sheet that has been resisting global warming is now loose (AFP 2014). This is an issue of concern as the paper demonstrates that the unstable ice now adds billions of tones of melt irrigate to the sea, hence making it rise. The water level is increasing due to the surge in temperature. According to the paper, Greenland is one of those countries that have contributed largely on the rise of the sea level. This is another issue of concerned, caused by global warming, and so the need to live with it should be embraced, since it is a natural phenomenon that nobody can totally control. It forced the energy secretary on the platform of liberal democrat Mr. Ed Davey to attack the climate skeptics on the issue of global warming. In the issue published on March 17, 2014, he

Poetry essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Poetry - Essay Example ‘Kubla Khan or, A Vision in a Dream – A Fragment’ is in Coleridge’s words a hallucination in an opium-induced reverie. The poem exhibits the brilliant possibilities of artistic creation on the spur of the moment. However, the poem is supposed to have undergone a lot of thoughtful reworking and editing since the moment it took form. It speaks of the ethereal pleasure dome the Chinese Emperor Kublai Khan ordered to be built in due respect for his position as a King with the divine sanction. Coleridge claims that the heavenly vision of the pleasure dome came to him in his dream and he tried to portray it in words but was disturbed by a visitor before he could complete it. Coleridge’s focal concern is on the miracle of creation which transcends concrete forms. Referring to the â€Å"damsel with a dulcimer†, he ponders: â€Å"Could I revive within me / Her symphony and song, / To such a deep delight twould win me, / That with music loud and long, / I would build that dome in air†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The incredible beauty of the pleasure dome of marble, the rustic surroundings and the heavenly music fills in the poet’s vision with the minutest details, and his attempt to recreate and immortalize all these in verse form brings in unparalleled poetic heights in the form of a reverie on the creative process. Wordsworth’s poem, ‘I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud’ is another instance of a momentary experience seething into the poet’s sensibility to stay forever in his poetic musings. The vision of innumerable daffodils â€Å"Tossing their heads in sprightly dance† is a common scene around Lake Ullswater. But the sight that he witnessed with his sister Dorothy leaves a lasting impression in him, perhaps in connection with the moment that he thoroughly enjoyed. It is not the beauty of a single daffodil but the impact they made in swaying in the breeze in such profusion that makes the poet wonderstruck. Moreover, as the last stanza

Hospitality industry marketing planning. Radisson Edwardian Hotel in Essay

Hospitality industry marketing planning. Radisson Edwardian Hotel in the UK - Essay Example SWOT analysis is a strategic planning technique which can examine the strengths, the weaknesses, the opportunities and the threats of a business. It is a basic form which serves as a centre for creating marketing plan. SWOT analysis reveals the positive conditions for a company to operate and adverse conditions which can occur for a company. SWOT analysis acquires information from micro-environmental analysis and divides it into internal aspects and external aspects. After completion of SWOT analysis, one can understand how to accomplish the objectives of company and what difficulties can come for accomplishing desired outcomes (Danca, n.d.). SWOT Analysis for Micro–Environment The micro environment includes stakeholders that a company deal with frequently. SWOT analysis can help to reveal the elements of microenvironment. Competitors: The success of any company depends on the level of competition in the market. In a certain market, one company lead over other companies. In the UK, if any company has market share of above 25% then it can be considered that the company has monopoly. In that case the company can charge premium prices. In certain markets only a limited number of companies dominate which is called oligopoly. In the UK insurance, vehicle, supermarket and banking, oligopolies prevail. The hotel industry in the UK is competitive market because there are many organisations which provide luxurious five star hotel services in the UK and thus customers have many choices. Thus, in the hotel industry there is requirement to provide excellent customer service (Oxford University Press, 2007). Customers: The customers are the major factor in sales. Hotel managers always monitor the requirements of customers and attempt to foresee how to fulfil those requirements. A SWOT analysis can help to satisfy th e requirements of customers. While analysing the strengths of a company it is considered from two points of view i.e. the company as well as its customers with whom it deals with everyday. A customer oriented SWOT helps to uncover a company’s weaknesses (Danca, n.d.). PESTLE Analysis for Macro Environment In macro environment there are several elements which can impact on decision of managers of hotel industry. For example, changes in taxes, trade barriers and changes in government rules and regulations, all these aspects come under macro environmental factors. The PESTLE analysis can help to evaluate those factors and classify them for the sake of the company. Political Factors: These factors consist of government policy and the level of interference in the economy. The political decisions affect on significant fields of business such as education, employment and infrastructure of country such as transport system. Political factor has major influence on the hotel industry in the UK. In the UK, the political condition is relatively steady. Issues such as terrorists attack specially the 11th September 2001 had affected the hotel industry in the UK. From 2000 to 2001, the expenditure of visitors for hotel decreased significantly. Furthermore, the terrorist attack on Turkey had affected the

Quantitative reasoning and analysis week 4 Essay

Quantitative reasoning and analysis week 4 - Essay Example In order to see if this hypothesis is true I held an examination using two groups and a comic strip I printed from the internet called Today’s Dogg. The strip is a single image of a dog that is staring into an empty dog-bowl saying, â€Å"Feed me†. Next to the bowl is a phone and text which read â€Å"Buy a smart phone. It does everything.† The two groups of five were taken into two different rooms and I briefed them on what they should do. Group A was the group that held the pens in their teeth and Group B is the group that held the pen in their lips. After a few minutes I received the results. Group B’s average rating was around 3.4 as Group A’s average rating was 4.2. However, I took an extra step, I called upon other friends and family members who have not taken the exam or know anything about the experiment. I had them repeat the test and the result were as follows: Group B’s Rating was 3.3 and Group A’s rating was 3.9. Group A ha d rated the strip to be funny compared to the other group which rated as average. With this I can conclude that Fritz Strack’s Hypothesis is right. This test does show that holding a pen in one’s teeth makes jokes funnier, but why? Well there could be possible reasons for this; however, the important thing about this experiment was to establish reliability. The consistency of the results could improve by conducting repeated tests on different groups.

Factors Involved in Fraud Cases with External Auditors Essay

Factors Involved in Fraud Cases with External Auditors - Essay Example As financial statements represent the functioning of the management, it is essential to maintain authenticity and reliability for avoiding fraudulent actions, while preparing such reports. The auditors express their views associated with the maintenance of authenticity and transparency by the management. They have been given the authority to assess these financial statements of organizations in order to judge the transparency of such information. They gather evidences in order to assure that the figures appearing in financial statements do not include material misstatement. The credibility of such reports is incremented by means of the audit process carried out by the auditors. These reports audited by auditors have huge impact on the decisions of investors, bankers, creditors and other stakeholders. The economy is struggling hard for recovering from a tumultuous situation which is infested with severe corporate scandals associated with misconduct of the auditors which have resulted in losing investor’s confidence. Presently, greater emphasis is given on improving the credibility, accountability, transparency and trust associated with the information provided in financial statements (Romero, 2010). The present structure involved in the audit process seems to be very problematic. Most of the big organizations generally pay their auditors by means of a third party known as the ‘audit system’. There are cases where clients make these payments directly to the auditors. In such cases, there is an added incentive paid by the clients to the auditors for delivering favourable news. Now the question which arises is whether such actions affect the real performance of auditors or influence them to lose their independence (Cooper & Neu, 2006). Actually, it does affect the real performance of auditors, thereby reducing the transparency and authenticity of the information in their audit reports. The auditors manipulate the figures in these financial state ments in order to earn high incentives. This has become one of the most remarkable issues requiring urgent attention in the present scenario. The thesis would be conducted on the topic, ‘Factors involved in fraud cases with external Auditors’. It would be done by dividing the entire analysis into three segments. The study would highlight that the auditors are influenced in three different ways: conflict in interest, double positioning threat and finally, the familiarity threat. Analysis Conflict in Interest The auditor’s independence is the major area of concern in this study. It is known that the managers have an interest in misrepresenting, exaggerating or manipulating the information provided in the financial statements of organizations. It is expected that an independent audit report must provide unbiased and credible appraisal related to the financial status of an organization. The significance of the auditor’s independence has been shown in American Institute of Certified Public Accountants’ (AICPA’s) Code of Professional Ethics. It has been made mandatory by various legal decisions, which are provided by the Supreme Court of United States, in their opening quote. Recently, there was a series of events which has raised questions regarding the independence involved in the present practices related to accounting.  

Issues in Human Resource Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Issues in Human Resource Management - Assignment Example Furthermore, since another restaurant franchise has beaten Costa Coffee, it is essential to identify some practices that could cause the organisation to overtake Starbuck’s position in the future. Human resource management might be the solution to these strategies issues, but it is critical to determine whether the characteristics in the organisation will benefit from these practices. Three areas of focus have been selected for the report, and they include: why training leads to better outcomes, employee engagement, commitment, and negative behaviour. It is imperative to understand what training, employee engagement and negative behaviour mean in relation to the organisation. Thereafter, some studies and researches will be used to examine whether these HR strategies are helpful to institutions or not. Finally, recommendations will be made on the way forward for Costa Coffee. Costa Coffee operates in a service industry or the hospitality sector, which relies on the successful provision of services by staff members (Costa Coffee, 2014). Consumers often assess the quality of a restaurant by the experience they encounter in those facilities, so firms that grasp this concept are likely to go out of their way to exceed expectations. In the hospitality industry, it is particularly challenging to be superior based solely on tangible elements of consumer encounters since competitors can do the same. However, maintaining personal interactions with buyers can go a long in giving a company an edge over its competitors; it is at this level that companies should consider training as part of their strategy for enhancing quality of service (Pollit, 2006). Literature identifies several justifications for the use of training in the service sector generally, and restaurant businesses in particular. Companies that train their employees tend to be perceived as more professional than those who do not as this manifests in their daily interactions. Furthermore, training is

BCG Growth Matrix Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

BCG Growth Matrix - Assignment Example Market growth is the percentage at which the market is growing over a given period of time. Market or demand growth indicates opportunity. Low growth products or markets have greater competition and vice versa. Marketers and ecommerce owners can use industry analysis, published reports and third party tools to track sale rates to gauge market growth. Marketers should plot the market share and market growth at least annually for each product category on the BCG Matrix. The BCG Matrix has four quadrants. Products in the Dogs quadrant are those in the lower right quadrat. They have low growth and low market share. These products should be closed out. The Cash Cow products are those in the lower left quadrant (Roggio, 2014). They have good market share and low growth. These products are harvested from with the revenue being invested elsewhere. The Question Marks products are those in the upper right quadrant. They have low market share and high growth. These products are promoted and advertised. The Stars are the upper left quadrant. They have strong market share and high growth. Marketers hold on to the Stars and try to continue to grow with moderate advertising and marketing. The benefits of the BCG Matrix include helping marketers evaluate balance between the quadrants, seek experience and volume effects, prepare for the future, and manufacture new products at low enough prices to lead in the market share. BCG Matrix is also easy and simple to use. The limitations of the BCG Matrix is that it neglects synergism between product lines, the Dogs can earn more than Cash Cows sometimes, getting data can be a challenge, high market share sometimes does not reflect on profitability, low market share products can be profitable and small competitors with fast growing market shares are neglected. Roggio, A. (2014). Using the BCG Matrix for Ecommerce Marketing Decisions. Practical ecommerce. Retrieved from

Cover story Essay Example for Free

Cover story Essay To investigate what level of obedience participants would show when an authority figure told them to administer electric shocks to another person. Participants: Obtained from advertisements + direct mailing. Self selected or volunteer sample. Â  40 males: 20-50 yrs old from New Haven area in the United Stated of America. Â  Job ranges Included: postal clerks, HS teachers, salesmen, labourers, engineers, etc. Â  Education: one had not finished HS to some who a have degree + qualification in various subjects. Paid: $4.50 regardless of what happened after and before they arrived. This is called COERCIAN. Method and Design: Â  Method: Lab experiment. Â  Observer observed participants for signs of tension/nervousness: sweat, tremble, biting of lips, nervous laughter I. V. /D. V. Â  I. V. There was NO I. V. D. V. Level of obedience; how far theyd go with the voltage to shock the learner. Procedure: LEARNER TASK Â  The teacher (participant) was asked to read a series of word pairs to the learner (confederate), and then read the 1st word of the pair along with the 4 other terms. Learner (confederate) had to indicate which 1 of the 4 terms was originally paired with the 1st word. SHOCK GENERATOR The shock generator perceived to be real professionally made + model printed. There were 30 switches labelled from 15 to 450 volts. 15 volt different between each switch. Â  Labels to describe intensity from slight shock (weakest) to xxx (strongest). Teachers (ppts) were given a 45 volts shock to convince them that the shocks were real. Teacher was told to give shock for every wrong answer while moving a shock level higher on shock generator. Teacher had to read out the voltage to the learner each time they were about to give a shock. Â  If the teacher asked for advice/wanted to stop, experimenter used 4 prods. Example: please continue, this experiment requires that you continue. Controls: Standardised deception. Cover story. Â  Slips of paper drawn (pre-determined teacher). Â  Learner strapped. Standardised prods used by experimenter. Results: (overall %) 65% of ppts continued to shock until 450 volts. Only 35% stopped before. Â  22. 5% stopped at 300 volts. Â  Many showed signed of nervousness and extreme tension. Â  14 displayed nervous laughter; 3 had uncontrollable seizures. Conclusion: Very high rate of obedience 65%. Milgram explained this as being so high because its a strong part of human society. Â  Milgram said: Many situational factors which lead to high rate of obedience.

Teen Pregnancy in The Media Essay Example for Free

Teen Pregnancy in The Media Essay Understanding the theories of persuasion, motivation, and influence will put you in life’s driver’s seat. Why? Because everything you want, or will want, in life comes from these three simple concepts. The power of persuasion is of extraordinary and critical importance in today’s world. Nearly every human encounter includes an attempt to gain influence or to persuade others to our way of thinking. Regardless of age, profession, religion, or philosophical beliefs, people are always trying to persuade each other. One’s ability to persuade meant great social prestige in the ancient Greek world. It was Aristotle who first introduced persuasion as a skill that could be learned. The first book ever written on persuasion was his The Art of Rhetoric. Aristotle taught that rhetoric was an art form that could be approached systematically by a formula for all persuasive attempts. Aristotle’s most famous contribution to persuasion was his three means of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos. He argued that the most effective persuasive attempts contain all three concepts. I apply these three concepts daily, whether I am communicating with someone or if I am watching TV or listening to the radio. The media is notorious for using ethos, pathos, and logos when trying to persuade viewers to either buy something or to simply watch a new show. One show in particular that I was persuaded to watch is MTV’s 16 and Pregnant. In this project I will talk about how shows like 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom apply Aristotle’s concepts of ethos, pathos, and logos in an attempt to decrease teen pregnancy in America. I remember when I was in high school and Jamie Lynn Spears’ pregnancy was a lead story in the news. Her pregnancy was such a big deal because she was only 16 at the time and on top of that her sister was a pop star. I remember hearing so many negative comments about her, which I found dramatic because where I come from I saw pregnant teens often. In fact, I’m the product of a teenage pregnancy. Ever since Jamie Lynn Spears’ pregnancy went public I have always been interested in the teen pregnancy debate on whether or not teen pregnancy should be made public. With that being said, MTV’s shows 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom have been called one of the best public service campaigns to prevent teen pregnancy. I decided to write about the influence of 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom on societal views and trends, particularly because there’s an important ongoing public debate over whether or not these shows are glamorizing young motherhood. The cast members, as well as many high school girls in America, reject the idea that any peer would or should be envious of a teen mom’s daily struggles, but there are those parents and teachers who worry that the girls’ presence in tabloids will encourage copycatting. MTV uses the art of persuasion to reach out to their audience. The show tries to emphasize that there is nothing glamorous about missing the prom to stay home with a newborn baby or sacrificing a high school education to raise a child. Research by the National Campaign found that among teens that watch 16 and Pregnant, 82 percent believe that show helps teens better understand the challenges of teen pregnancy and parenthood and how to avoid it. Although the National Campaign seems to be a reliable source, I still question whether or not this show is effectively persuading our nation. The main research questions for this project are â€Å"How do shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade viewers not to get pregnant as teens? † I also want to research if these strategies effective at persuading teens and young adults, or do these shows glamorize teen pregnancy. I will analyze the show from a rhetorical perspective. I want to know if MTV producers are in fact glamorizing teen pregnancy or are they using their credibility to create awareness. MTV has a long history taking sexual health issues head-on through campaigns such as documentary shows. These shows are well put together, logical, and they use authentic footage to engage pathos in campaigns. I plan on answering the questions I have about this national topic by conducting a survey and researching other national surveys that have been done. I would like to conduct a survey amongst my peers on campus to collect data to see if I have similar results as the National Campaign. I also plan on looking at scholarly journals written by high school teachers and college professors. High school teachers are in contact with these students every day and I feel that their opinions and critiques are credible. I know that conducting my own survey and reviewing scholarly journals will help guide me to answering the research questions that I have. Many of us wonder why we behave in the way we do, or why we say the things we do. Although many of us attribute our beliefs and ideas to parental or peer influence, the most significant models and mentors for most adolescents as they develop may, in fact, be characters or â€Å"celebreality† depicted through popular television programs. Throughout our youth, we are frequently exposed to television. We watch it for entertainment, education, or simply to alleviate boredom. As we watch, we internalize many of its messages and images and learn from what we see. Many young children dress up and act out roles of their favorite Disney characters. However, there are young children now who want to play the roles of teen moms from MTV’s Teen Mom show. I recently witnessed my two younger cousins, ages nine and eleven, â€Å"act† like they were teen moms by putting to small pillows in their shirts and proceeded to call each other â€Å"Maci† and â€Å"Farrah†. When They initially put the pillows in their shirts, I had no idea what they were doing, however, when they called each other those names, I immediately knew what they were doing. It was so unexpected and caught me off guard, and made me question: first, why the heck are these babies watching Teen Mom; And secondly, is this how young girls are â€Å"playing† now? Although some may see this as simple playtime, how much of the messages from television remain with children as they grow? Television shows such as Teen Mom or 16 and Pregnant depict the â€Å"real† life, sometimes concluding with the all too familiar, â€Å"happily ever after. † Do these shows set unattainable real life expectations for the viewer? Such television shows highlight moments of interest, leaving out intricate details regarding emotions and relationships between the teen moms and their situation. MTV edits theses shows to depict what they want the audience to see and believe what is going on, but everything is not shown. The episodes are 30 minutes long, and life is much more complex and elaborate. Media representations of life are confusing for many viewers. When we observe television stars behaving in a particular way, we assume that comparable actions in our lives will result in similar consequences. The Neilson Company reported that television consumption in the United States in the 2008- 2009 season reached an all time high. Americans spend approximately four hours and 49 minutes watching television every day (Media Literacy Clearinghouse, 2009). Spending this much time watching television is bound to affect us. When television programs begin to impact our behaviors more deeply does the influence of our parents or teachers, it is time to take a deeper look into this phenomenon and discover its real implications. Throughout this study, I will discuss the use of persuasion in television shows such as Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant. This study will focus on the effects of ethos, pathos, and logos used by MTV, and how their persuasion is affecting today’s youth by airing these programs. In this section I am going to outline the theories guiding my questions. y. Cultivation Analysis Theory examines the relationship between extent of television viewing and conception of reality. The theory is based on work developed by George Gerbner which began in the 1970’s. The more people see false representations of life and relationships on television, the more they accept it as reality. Viewers will consequently believe in a greater incidence of the overrepresented portrayals, which will subsequently affect their behavior (Eisend, 2006). Cultivation theory explains the importance of viewers’ thoughtful examination of media messages before accepting them as truth. The influence of media representations of reality is powerful in the development of self image and world understanding. In relation to the growing number of teen pregnancy, recent studies show that the amount of sexual content on television has been considerable and increasing over the years (Eyal Finnerty, 2009). Television and media messages contribute significantly to individuals’ thoughts and behaviors. It comes as no surprise to see that, â€Å"research has established that exposure to sexual content in entertainment programming can contribute to a young person’s sexual socialization and that adolescents turn to magazines and television as central sources of information about sex and contraception† (Eyal Finnerty, 2009). These studies have discovered that sexual behavior depicted on television typically occurs between unmarried individuals and that many of the risks related to this behavior ( like unplanned pregnancy) are rarely seen as consequences (Eyal Finnerty, 2009). As stated previously, when these actions are rewarded or justified (on shows such as Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant), individuals, specifically teens, will be more likely to engage in the behavior themselves. One of the most generally accepted theories used to explain the influence of media on individuals is social cognitive theory. Although there is some debate regarding the full influence of the media on viewers, it is known that humans learn from observation. According to Albert Bandura, things people experience in their environments affect their behavior and values. When they see behavior that is rewarded or praised, they are likely to exhibit the behavior themselves through operant learning (Bandura, 1994). It has been questioned repeatedly if MTV’s shows Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant glamorize teen pregnancy or are they using persuasive techniques to influence young viewers to make safe sex decisions. However, Bandura suggests that if we witness a particular behavior on television, we are likely to imitate that behavior in our own lives. When teens watch these television shows, they are influenced to either imitate the behavior or learn from it. MTV’s purpose of 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom is to persuade young viewers that teen pregnancy is not a fairytale life, but yet MTV shows an edited version of these pregnant teens’ daily life. After the teens’ stories are told on 16 and Pregnant, their lives are followed on Teen Mom where they usually have a house, a car, and what teens want the most: freedom. When teenagers watch this show, yes they are seeing some hardships of being a parent at a young age, but they are also seeing that the teens on the show are â€Å"grown† and are making it with a child more than struggling. However, the younger viewers are oblivious to fact that these teens are getting paid from being on the show, and that is the money that they are using to live more comfortable on Teen Mom than they were on 16 and Pregnant. Older teens realize that these girls on television are being paid, so they can perceive getting pregnant as a teen and being on one of these shows as an outlet to get money, disregarding the fact that they will have a child. Television has the ability to model the beliefs of individuals due to the situations and characters’ believed similarities to real life. Through the imitation of and identification with people on television, viewers exhibit behavior similar to the characters in their own lives. While watching television programs, viewers learn about through social cognition. Another theory that aims to describe the effect of media on young viewers is the early window theory. This theory examines how children are allowed to see the world and its various aspects before they possess the skill set to adequately understand and act in it. According to this theory, children learn at early ages about gender roles and their function within society. Not only are children exposed to various portrayals of reality, but these portrayals can â€Å"encourage expectations of others Portrayals in television and other media of highly attractive persons may encourage dissatisfaction [with] or lowered evaluations of attractiveness of those of the pertinent sex in real life† (Comstock, 1991). These portrayals can influence the behavior of children regarding personal body image and the image of others’ bodies as well. The early window seeks to explain the implications of television on the lives of youthful viewers. In relation to the narrative I shared about my two younger cousins, children may not normally be exposed to certain experiences or emotions, but because of television during the time of growth, children are shown elements of reality meant for their later years. My cousins know what it means to be pregnant, a baby is inside of a woman’s stomach. How the baby got there is still questionable to them. However, they are blind to the controversy about to teen pregnancy. In their eyes, an seventeen or eighteen year old is grown, which why they did not understand why I told them to stop mocking Maci and Farrah. During their youth, they are exposed to television shows like Teen Mom and 16 and pregnant, and they are exposed to adult situations and emotions that no child or teenager should have to witness, or better yet understand, at an early age. Little research has been conducted to better understand how media might also have positive effects by, for example, decreasing risky sexual behavior and promoting healthier decisions among teens. Given that teens’ use of media has increased over the past decade, and that the amount of sexual content in the media has also increased, it is reasonable to explore whether Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant might be used to help prevent teen pregnancy. My research question asks, how do shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use ethos, pathos and logos to persuade viewers not to get pregnant as teens? I conducted a survey to evaluate if these strategies, like MTV shows, are effective at persuading teens and young adults. My survey was composed of 10 questions. Five out of the 10 questions were context questions, and five questions were demographic questions. A total of 10 teens participated and completed the survey. The average age of the participants was 15. 6 years, ranging from 13 to 18 years old. All of the participants were female (100%). Five of the participants were Caucasian and five were African American. Six out of the ten of the participants reported having had sex. Two of the participants are teenage mothers. My survey was designed to learn more about how watching and discussing episodes of Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant influences teens’ perceptions of getting pregnant and becoming a parent at a young age. My results also shed light on teens’ perceptions of the shows Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant, in particular, and their views about how media might influence teens’ decisions about sex more generally. Television and other media alone do not cause, and cannot prevent, teen pregnancy. However, entertainment media can reach millions of teens with important messages about teen pregnancy. It is necessary to consider that there is a distinction between this survey I conducted, which attempts to understand teens’ views about teen pregnancy as a result of watching MTV’s Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant—versus an impact evaluation of a prevention program whose sole purpose is to reduce teen pregnancy. While evidence based teen pregnancy prevention programs are guided by specific theories and have the explicit goal of changing behavior to reduce risk of teen pregnancy, television shows such as Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant are created for entertainment with the goal of attracting viewers and keeping them engaged. The teens in this study enjoyed watching and discussing the 16 and Pregnant episodes and thought that the show was realistic. Neither the boys nor girls who watched the episodes wanted to imitate the teens in the episodes they watched. In fact, nearly all of my teen participants (93%) that watched the show agreed (53% strongly agreed) with the statement: â€Å"I learned that teen parenthood is harder than I imagined from these episodes. † When asked if these shows glamorized teen pregnancy five (50%) of my participants strongly disagreed, two (20%) disagreed, and three (30%) selected neutral. As I stated before, some of society believe that these shows â€Å"glamorizes† teen pregnancy, the findings from this survey show my teen participants do not share that view. In addition, teens that saw and discussed the episodes reported that they enjoyed watching and talking about the show and that they learned something new from doing so. The more they liked it, the more likely they were to have negative views about teen pregnancy. Teens were eager to recommend the show to others; 90% of participants agreed (60% of those strongly agreed) with the statement: â€Å"I think all teenagers should watch a show like this. † Many (80%) said they would recommend that friends participate in the discussion, too. The results of this survey support the idea that teens are interested in watching and discussing reality television shows about teen pregnancy, and that messages about the realities of teen pregnancy and parenting in these shows can influence teens’ attitudes about the challenges of teen parenthood. Given the popularity of these shows, their messages clearly reach a large number of teens. Although I collected plenty of useful data, there were some limitations to my survey. First, I only surveyed female participants. It would have been interesting to have male opinions with this survey to analyze if they shared the same attitudes about these shows as my female participants did. MTV is a universal television station that has a female and male demographic. Unlike Lifetime and Oxygen, channels that have a majority of female viewers, MTV targets male and female viewers and it could be likely that many males watch this show because they enjoy watching MTV in general. Second, my survey only consisted of teenage participants. Initially, I wanted to survey teenagers and high school teachers. High school teachers are in contact with teens everyday and would have a credible opinion. However, I decided to just ask teenagers because I wanted to keep the focus on them. This topic as a whole is about teenage pregnancy so I wanted to know how teenagers felt about these shows and if they thought these shows glamorized teen pregnancy. The last limitation is that my survey questions did not really discuss what teens learned and could have been better. My survey asked questions that produced answers about their attitudes toward the show, but it did not ask questions in regards to what they specifically learned. I asked my participants if they felt the show glamorized teen pregnancy, however my survey was constructed on a Likert-Type Scale so they only had the option of on selecting one of the following: â€Å"Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree. † It would have been a good idea to leave that question open and ask them to explain their answer that way I could have collected data about what they learned specifically and why exactly they thought that these shows did or did not glamorize teen pregnancy. Initially I hypothesized that these shows glamorize teen pregnancy, and the shows would increase teens’ desire to want to become pregnant because these shows edit out some of the struggles. However, I seem to be wrong based on my survey results. Nearly all of my participants either have watched these shows, and a little over half of them said they learned that parenthood is harder than they thought after watching these shows. When presented with the statement that the shows glamorize teen pregnancy seven out of my ten participants disagreed, and the other three participants selected the neutral choice. That concludes that more than half of my participants have opposing views from what I hypothesized. Although three of the participants chose â€Å"neutral† as their answer they did not fully agree or disagree with the statement. Therefore, a majority of the participants proved my hypothesis to be wrong. My hypothesis may have been incorrect, but my research question about how do shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant uses ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade viewers still remains. Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant, allow teens to see what the responsibility of having a baby is. It shows the lives of four girls who got pregnant at age 16. Many of them struggle not only with their pregnancy, but also with the acceptance of the parents or even their own boyfriend. The style and the language they use are very realistic making the series even more interesting to teens these days. The show gets its point of view out by making the viewers, mostly teen girls, feel what the girls in the show are feeling, using ethos, pathos and logos very well. Ethos means to convince an audience of the speaker’s credibility or character. Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use ethos to show the young audience that the show is a credible source and is worth listening too. For example, the show often takes place in a hospital, obviously, and doctors are shown giving the teen parents medical advice and expertise. This establishes credibility to the viewers because doctors are associated with being smart which would make them credible, theoretically. I noticed from watching the shows that they will introduce the doctors and what hospital the doctors practice at. I feel like they present where the doctor practices to make the situations even more credible. Ethos can be developed by choosing language that is appropriate for the audience and topic (also means choosing proper level of vocabulary), sounding fair or unbiased, introducing expertise, and by using correct grammar. The doctors use simple language for the teen moms and viewers to understand, they also tell it â€Å"straight like it is† to the young parents about any risks or complications (sounding unbiased and fair), and they also speak articulately and use correct grammar, all to contribute credibility and appeal to the audience. Once these shows prove their credibility, the audience is more likely to develop an emotional connection to the girls on these shows. Pathos means to persuade an audience by appealing to their emotions. Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use pathos to evoke sympathy from an audience; to get them to feel what the girls on the show feel. A common use of pathos would be to draw pity from an audience. For example, one of the teens on this show, Farrah, lost her boyfriend in a crash while she was pregnant. Farrah is portrayed on the show as the girl struggling emotionally because her baby’s father is not there to support her during her pregnancy like the other girls on the show. Farrah has her family that supports her, but she doesn’t have her boyfriend. The death of her boyfriend is the emotional appeal to connect with the young audience. Teens value their boyfriends, sometimes a little more than their families at that age. So when young viewers see that she doesn’t have her boyfriend around anymore, they feel sad and pity her because dealing with a boyfriend’s death as a teen is just as eye opening as dealing with pregnancy at an early age. The show edits Farrah’s episodes to really emphasize the fact that she has to raise her daughter on her own, but receives a lot of support from her family. Another use of pathos would be to inspire anger from an audience, perhaps in order to prompt action. Pathos is the Greek word for both â€Å"suffering† and â€Å"experience. † I saw a lot of this use of pathos in Caitlyn’s episodes. Caitlyn and her boyfriend decided to place their daughter up for adoption. They are the only couple on the show to do this. The show edits Caitlyn’s episodes to depict her experience of carrying her baby, selecting an adopted family, giving birth, and the emotional suffering she has after she gives her baby away. Although Caitlyn’s experience and suffering would appeal to the audience’s emotions to feel pity, I can also see how it could inspire anger from the audience. There is no doubt in my mind that there are some teens that have negative views about adoption because many teens don’t understand adoption and only think of it as â€Å"giving your baby away to strangers. † However, there may be some teens that have morals and religious beliefs that make them negatively view adoption. Needless to say, Caitlyn giving her baby away could spark questions amongst some young viewers like, â€Å"Why would she give her baby away I would never do that! † Many of times, an ill-educated mind would ask questions like this because they are unaware of statistics and logical reasoning to certain actions. Logos means to convince an audience by use of logic or reason. To use logos would be to cite facts and statistics, historical and literal analogies, and citing certain authorities on a subject. In Caitlyn’s case, MTV allows her to share on the show why she decided to give her daughter up for adoption. She explains that she is living in an unstable household that she does not want her daughter to grow up in. After each episode, MTV also provides statistics on teenage pregnancy in the United States, and how many teens follow through with the adoption option. I also observed while watching 16 and Pregnant that MTV makes a conscious effort to define terminology on the screen for the viewers. Some of the teens on the show will have an epidural during their delivery or their child would be born with jaundice, and terms like â€Å"epidural† and â€Å"jaundice† would appear on the screen with short, easy to read definitions. I’m not sure if MTV does this to scare teens or if they do this to inform them so they will have a better understanding of what is going on. Logos can be developed by using advanced and abstract language, citing facts (which is very important in my opinion), and by constructing logical arguments. According to Aristotle, rhetoric is the ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion. He described three types of rhetorical appeal: ethos, pathos, and logos. In order for shows like 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom to be effective strategies to decrease teen pregnancy, MTV producers needed to understand these three terms. Judging by my survey results, these producers are knowledgeable and understand that the proper use of ethos, pathos and logos is necessary. The media is notorious for using ethos, pathos, and logos when trying to persuade viewers to either buy something or to simply watch a new show. I was persuaded to watch MTV’s Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant when I was in high school. I simply wanted to know more about the persuasive appeals these shows used and if these shows glamorized teen pregnancy. This project allowed me to research Aristotle’s concept of ethos, pathos, and logos, and how these shows are effective strategies to persuade young viewers not to become pregnant. My main research questions for this research project was â€Å"How do shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade viewers not to get pregnant? † And â€Å"Are these shows effective strategies for persuading teens and young adults? † I hypothesized that these shows glamorize teen pregnancy, and I wanted to further my research to learn more about this controversial topic. I initially planned on constructing a survey and reviewing scholarly journals regarding theories to help guide me to answering my research questions. I began my research by identifying theories that would help me approach this topic. I created my theoretical framework using three theories that I selected based on their ideologies of the media’s influence on behaviors. Media representations of life are confusing for many viewers. When we observe television stars behaving in a particular way, we assume that comparable actions in our lives will result in similar consequences. With that being said, my theoretical framework focused on Cultivation Analysis, Social Cognitive Theory, and the Early Window Theory. Cultivation Analysis Theory examines the relationship between extent of television viewing and conception of reality. In relation to the growing number of teen pregnancies, recent studies show that the amount of sexual content on television has been considerable and increasing over the years (Eyal Finnerty, 2009). Television and media messages contribute significantly to individuals’ thoughts and behaviors. I was able to apply this theory to my research because I wanted to make a logical argument that when teens see these young moms on TV living a fancy life (owning a house, owning a car, partying, dating, etc. ) that they would believe that they could have a similar life. This theory allowed me to show that teens could easily misinterpret the scripted situations happening on Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant as a reality. I also learned that one of the most generally accepted theories used to explain the influence of media on individuals is Social Cognitive Theory. According to Albert Bandura, when people see behavior that is rewarded or praised, they are likely to exhibit the behavior themselves through operant learning. I selected this theory to prove my hypothesis that if young viewers of these shows watched these girls develop a fancy life from 16 and Pregnant to Teen Mom then they would view this as the girls being praised and would be more likely to imitate behaviors to receive these rewards, which in this case would require pregnancy in order to receive the same â€Å"praise†. Although there is some debate regarding the full influence of the media on viewers, it is known that humans learn from observation. This theory also provided insight to the possible results of my research question that asks how these shows use ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade young viewers. As stated, humans learn through observation, so being able to witness these teen parents’ experience on the show and to hear their stories has more potential to persuade them to get pregnant or not depending on how they observe the show. The last theory that I used for my theoretical framework was the Early Window Theory. According to this theory, children are allowed to see the world and its various aspects before they possess the skill set to adequately understand and act in it. I decided to use this theory as part of my framework because I wanted to analyze the effects these shows have in regards to exposing teenagers to â€Å"adult situations† (like pregnancy). Teenagers get to a certain point where they are curious about sex and have questions. That is normal. However, these shows are documentaries about young parents who are experiencing having a child out of wedlock and in some cases have complications with their birth or have to worry about going to court for child support. These documentaries are shown on MTV, which is a television channel geared towards a young audience. This young audience is exposed to these documentaries about pregnancy, and if they watch them then they are given the opportunity to learn about an aspect of life that they should not be exposed to or worried about until they are older and are able to adequately understand it all. After developing my theoretical framework, I began to apply my methods for collecting data. I constructed a survey of ten questions. I surveyed ten female participants ranging in age from 13-18. I experienced limitations with my survey, like I only surveyed females and I only surveyed teenagers. The biggest limitation of my survey was that my questions were not the best. Based on my questions and the responses that I received I was unable to find out what exactly teens learned from the show. However, I did find out my teen participants’ attitudes towards these shows and how these shows influence their attitudes. My survey results also proved my hypothesis that these shows glamorize teen pregnancy to be wrong. More than half of my survey participants disagreed that these shows glamorize teen pregnancy. I was initially surprised by the data I received from the survey. However, after giving my results deep thought, I have concluded that my results make sense. Why would teens feel that the show glamorizes teen pregnancy? When I consider the ideas from my theoretical framework about how the media influences people’s conception of reality and that people learn through observation, I can safely assume that teens might believe that these girls on the show are living a normal life. Again, one of the downfalls of my survey is that I only surveyed teenage girls and my results reflected that. MTV shows the teen moms struggling sometimes, and other times they are living what seems to be a normal life. However, the struggle doesn’t out shine the normality. Although I did not receive the results I wanted, the results I did analyze made sense considering my theoretical research and the age and gender demographics of my survey participants. In conclusion, this project as a whole helped me understand the art of persuasion in relation to the media. Shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant effectively use ethos, paths and logos to influence teens’ attitudes about pregnancy. My survey results reflect this effectiveness, and my teenage participants said they learned that parenthood is harder than they thought from watching these shows; and I agree. The girls on these shows are not ready to have babies. They go through a lot of pain and also they get to miss out on high school memories. Being a mom is not an easy job for anyone. Many teens have at risk pregnancies because the body is not developed to carry a baby. MTV produces persuasive appeals on Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant to address certain facts and discuss how important it is for teens to understand the consequences of teen pregnancy. References Cosmstock, G. (1991). Television and the American Child. San Diego Academic. Bandura, A. (1994). Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication. Hillside: In J. Bryant and D. Zillman Gerbner, G. (1998). Cultivation Analysis: An Overview. Mass Communication Society, 175-194. Eisend, M. (2006). The influence of TV viewing on consumers’ body images and related consumption behavior. Springer Science + Business Media, 101-116 Eyal, K. , Finnerty, K. (2009). The Portrayal of Sexual Intercourse on Television: How, Who, and With What Consequence? Mass Communication and Society, 143-170. Media Literacy Clearinghouse. (2009). Media Use Statistics. Retrieved November 2009, from the Media Literacy Clearinghouse: http://www. frankwbaker. com/mediause. htm

The Techniques Of Neutralization

The Techniques Of Neutralization In 1957, Gresham Sykes and David Matza developed a theory that explained delinquent behavior through techniques of neutralization. Sykes and Matza developed five different techniques to help them explain their theory. This literature review provides background information on the Techniques of Neutralization and looks at each one specifically. Over time, several studies have been done to better explain and test out these techniques. Also included are critiques of Sykes and Matzas Theory. Overview The Techniques of Neutralization were developed to explain juvenile delinquents and why they committed crime (Moyer 2001). Its believed that they reject the values and goals of society and form goals and values of their own. Delinquents accept the values of being allowed to take the easy way out. Society believes in an individual taking steps to better themselves in non-criminal ways to succeed. The criminal subcultural sees this as a struggle and tends to shy away (Moyer 2001). The criminal believes in low achievement and dropping out. The control theories is the umbrella which most believe these techniques should fall under, however, theorist believe that this was used to criticize Hirschis Social Bond Theory. Other theorists saw this as an extension to Hirschis theory. What Sykes and Matza intended to do was to clarify what was meant by definitions favorable to law. Their initial plan was not to develop a theory of control (Moyer 2001). Using this as a building block, Matza later developed another theory that we now know as Drift Theory. Sykes and Matza outlined five different techniques. Each technique provided what theorists believe to be excuses or responses to delinquent behavior. These techniques became important in lessening the effect of control on these individuals and an important part of the criminal behavior. Denial of Responsibility This technique allows an individual to deny any right to being involved in an act (Sykes and Matza 1957). Usually they are reacting to an outside source whether it be another person or a situation that has affected them. They will often say that their reaction was beyond their control. (Moyer 2001; Akers and Sellers 2004) Denial of responsibility can actually be explained through other theories. The theories that formed from the Chicago School could use this and say that where an individual lives or comes from can help explain why he or she has resulted to deviant behavior. (Moyer 2001) Denial of Injury An individual in this situation will say that their action yielded no victim, therefore their crime was victimless (Sykes and Matza 1957). Their argument is that no one or nothing was harm in the act of their crime. As a society we view victimless crimes as things like prostitution and drug use. The government tends to constitute morals instead of basing it on the fact that these acts can actually hurt people. Delinquents see this as an opportunity to act out. These individuals may also play a part in other criminal activities such as tagging or vandalism and stealing. They feel that no one is harmed by these crimes, so it is alright to commit them. Denial of the Victim This technique could be tied the denial of injury, but its a bit different in the fact that individuals will argue that the victim had it coming (Sykes and Matza 1957). Usually this act is a result of retaliation against something the victim did to egg on the offender. Hate crimes are an example crimes that can be explained by this technique. (Moyer 2001; Akers and Sellers 2004) Some theorists argue that rape or sexual assault can be used to show denial of victim. On most college campuses, drinking is a huge problem that often results in rape or assault (Piacentini, Chatzidakis, and Banister 2012). College females are seen as weaker individuals to prey on when they are intoxicated. The males in this situation take advantage of this. This criminal act could happen within the party scene or when the individual leaves. The male would argue that she was drunk and was asking for it. (Moyer 2001; Akers and Sellers 2004; Piacentini, Chatzidakis, and Banister 2012) Another example of this technique would be your average club or bar right. Most individuals who go into bars, go there to drink. Lets say a couple goes to a bar, they sit down and a man starts to hit of the female companion. Hes obviously drunk, but the boyfriend sees this guy as a threat and nicely asks him to stop. The drunk male begin to mouth off at the boyfriend. The boyfriend becomes heated and punches the drunk male in the face causing an uproar at the bar that results in the cops being called. When the cops arrive, the boyfriend says that the drunk male had it coming, as he was the one who started the situation in the first place. However, this is most often the situation in any fight. (Piacentini, Chatzidakis, and Banister 2012) Appeal to Higher Loyalties Appeal to high loyalty crimes usually occur when something big is at stake (Sykes and Matza 1957). This is a common technique used by the government. However, as far as delinquents are concerned, this is used to explain crimes committed while involved in a gang. Juveniles see the gang as their family. Their goal is to fit in, so they often say that they owed this to the gang to defend their reputation within it. (Moyer 2001; Akers and Sellers 2004) This technique could also be used to explain a theft of some sort (Shigihara 2013). There is a single mother of three who works at in retail. One of her children suffers from severe allergies, but she doesnt have enough money to afford the medication. Before this mother leaves work on a certain occasion she sneaks a bottle of medicine into her purse. Consequently, this woman gets caught by the manager who has seen her in the act. When this woman is question, she states her situation and tells the manager that she had to do it for her child. She has then attempted to appeal to higher loyalties (Moyer 2001). Condemnation of Condemners This technique is one of the most complicated, but more cleaver. It allows the delinquent to shift the attention from themselves to the individual who is convicting them (Sykes and Matza 1957). They usually tend to focus of the acts or behaviors of others so that there is a shift in action and attention. (Moyer 2001; Akers and Sellers 2004) Condemnation of condemners can be used in court cases a lot. The offender could be allowed to shift focus on the wrongdoings of the police or any other individual who played a part in their behavior. Racial profiling would make for an example. Law enforcement officials have a target that they have their mind set on. Anyone who so slightly resembles that individual is usually targeted by officers. Maybe an individual is in the wrong place at the wrong time. If this individual is taken in, they could argue that the police officials were profiling him or there was no evidence that could or would link him to anything. Review of Literature and Studies According to Costello, Sykes and Matza created that the notion of an oppositional subculture was unlikely because delinquents seem to display guilt or shame (2000). They typically have some ties to what we know as conformist society. Sykes and Matza believe that these neutralizations are extensions of legal defenses to crimes (Costello 2000). These techniques allow the delinquent to see them as valid, but they tend to be denied by the society around them. The studies and empirical research that has been done to study this theory was provided mixed results (Schafer and Knudten 1977). Most studies show that those who use neutralization techniques tend to have weak bonds and are more likely to be deviant (Costello 2000). Agnews longitudinal analysis of violent behavior show that neutralization has more effect on violence among those who condemn the behavior, thus supporting Sykess and Matzas argument that states neutralization is a result of internalized constraints to behavior that require these neutralization techniques (Costello 2000). As far as current research goes, there are several arguments. One is although there is research that show a relationship between neutralization and deviance, the relationship is usually weak (Costello 2000). Another argument is that an individual uses the techniques as a way to protect his or her self-esteem because of the ties they have to the society (Costello 2000). None of the evidence found for any of these presents clear and strong support. There was a study done that looked at men in a Tennessee prison. Most of these individuals came from poor background. They were all grouped into different categories based or the attachment to the society in which they came from. Several crimes were looked at and then each individual was asked if they had been involved in any of those particular crimes. At the end of the study, they found that each individual used at least one technique of neutralization to defend their act. (Copes 2003) Critiques One of the main arguments against this theory is the fact that it doesnt explain how society tolerates the use of the techniques (Moyer 2001). Sykes and Matza explained how to use the techniques, but they failed to explain whether certain individuals would be more accepting (Moyer 2001). There may be some members of a society or group that will be either more lenient or harsher as a result of the use of these techniques. However, we are unaware of these individuals because this theory has failed to mention it (Rankin 2011). The biggest criticism of this theory is that it is not a theory at all (Moyer 2001). Sykes and Matza said themselves that the research and evidence to support this theory was rare (Sykes and Matza 1957). They actually admitted to the fact that this was more of an addition to a larger more general theory. This is how Matzas Drift Theory came about (Akers and Sellers 2004). The actual goal of this research was to explain how individuals who commit crimes still see themselves as law-abiding citizens (Sykes and Matza 1957). As we now look at the techniques as a whole, theorists believe that this is best categorized not as a theory but as steps to creating a control theory (Moyer 2001). Conclusion The techniques of neutralization has been turned into what is believed to be building blocks to a greater theory. They have taken a look at the ways that criminals, delinquents especially, explain or rationalize their behavior. Even in todays world, we see evidence of these techniques being used. Sykes and Matza have developed these techniques that will not only be used by criminals, but also by those who may represent these criminals as justifications for committing these crimes.

Comparison of Cousin Kate by Christina Rossetti and The Seduction by Ei

Compare and contrast Cousin Kate by Christina Rossetti with The Seduction by Eileen McAuley Comparison of Cousin Kate by Christina Rossetti and The Seduction by Eileen McAuley For this essay I have been asked to compare two poems. One from the era of pre twentieth century and one from the twentieth century. The poem from pre twentieth century I am writing about is ‘Cousin Kate’ by Christina Rossetti. The poem from the twentieth century will be ‘The Seduction’ by Eileen McAuley. These two poems have many similarities, but they also have many differences. It is pretty obvious that both these poets have different writing techniques, obviously because they were written in different eras. These two poems which I will be discussing have many similarities even though they were written in different eras one of the similarities is exploitation. In the poem ’Cousin Kate’ the narrator feels she has been exploited by the Great Lord, because she feels he used her to have sexual intercourse. And in ‘The Seduction’ the young girl is exploited by magazines, and the young naà ¯ve teenager actually believed in what the editors wrote about perfect stories of romance and she believed after reading this magazines that it was almost abnormal not to have sexual intercourse. The author of this poem, Christina Rossetti, begins this poem with "I was a cottage maiden." This shows us that the narrator is writing in the past tense the narrator is reminiscing on the past. The narrator is also writing in first person narrative which creates a bond between the author and the reader as if the narrator is talking directly to us. The next line of this poem starts with â€Å"Hardened by sun and air† this tells us that the narrator is a to... ...Cousin Kate’ it was disgraceful as being chaste was highly important at that time. â€Å"Shameless shameful† This live is incongruous an oxymoron the alliteration of the letter ‘S’ also emphasizes the oxymoron. The next line implies his predatory nature and his desire from the beginning of meeting the narrator â€Å"His plaything† The word ‘plaything’ this word is very emotive word it conveys to us the lord’s true intentions of using the narrator just for sexual intercourse. This is also similar to ‘The Seduction’ as in The Seduction the young male teenager buy’s the girl drinks and encourages her to come to the river with him â€Å"’I’ll take you to the river where I spend the afternoons.† This line implies that there is only one thing on his mind and that is not to talk about but to take her chastity as the lord intended to do with the narrator in ‘Cousin Kate’. Comparison of Cousin Kate by Christina Rossetti and The Seduction by Ei Compare and contrast Cousin Kate by Christina Rossetti with The Seduction by Eileen McAuley Comparison of Cousin Kate by Christina Rossetti and The Seduction by Eileen McAuley For this essay I have been asked to compare two poems. One from the era of pre twentieth century and one from the twentieth century. The poem from pre twentieth century I am writing about is ‘Cousin Kate’ by Christina Rossetti. The poem from the twentieth century will be ‘The Seduction’ by Eileen McAuley. These two poems have many similarities, but they also have many differences. It is pretty obvious that both these poets have different writing techniques, obviously because they were written in different eras. These two poems which I will be discussing have many similarities even though they were written in different eras one of the similarities is exploitation. In the poem ’Cousin Kate’ the narrator feels she has been exploited by the Great Lord, because she feels he used her to have sexual intercourse. And in ‘The Seduction’ the young girl is exploited by magazines, and the young naà ¯ve teenager actually believed in what the editors wrote about perfect stories of romance and she believed after reading this magazines that it was almost abnormal not to have sexual intercourse. The author of this poem, Christina Rossetti, begins this poem with "I was a cottage maiden." This shows us that the narrator is writing in the past tense the narrator is reminiscing on the past. The narrator is also writing in first person narrative which creates a bond between the author and the reader as if the narrator is talking directly to us. The next line of this poem starts with â€Å"Hardened by sun and air† this tells us that the narrator is a to... ...Cousin Kate’ it was disgraceful as being chaste was highly important at that time. â€Å"Shameless shameful† This live is incongruous an oxymoron the alliteration of the letter ‘S’ also emphasizes the oxymoron. The next line implies his predatory nature and his desire from the beginning of meeting the narrator â€Å"His plaything† The word ‘plaything’ this word is very emotive word it conveys to us the lord’s true intentions of using the narrator just for sexual intercourse. This is also similar to ‘The Seduction’ as in The Seduction the young male teenager buy’s the girl drinks and encourages her to come to the river with him â€Å"’I’ll take you to the river where I spend the afternoons.† This line implies that there is only one thing on his mind and that is not to talk about but to take her chastity as the lord intended to do with the narrator in ‘Cousin Kate’.

The Symlar San Fernando Valley Earthquake of 1971 :: Seismology natural disaster

Earthquakes are best described as a shaking or vibration of the ground caused by breaking of rock. Sometimes they are very strong and other times you would hardly notice them. This shaking occurs when stress that builds up in the crust is suddenly released as the crust breaks free and/or slides against the other pieces of crust. Earthquakes may also be thought of as the breaking of a popsicle stick by applying pressure to both ends at the same time. Should you try this experiment , you will feel the pressure build up as you apply more force until the stick snaps. When the stick snaps you will feel an instant of pain at your fingers as the stress reduces and energy waves move throughout the stick. When the earth's crust is placed under similar types of stress, binding as the stress builds, it will also snap and release the energy into the surrounding rocks, 'ooch'. Thinking about earthquakes will become more clear if you try another experiment. Experiment Find two regular red bricks, or any color will do. Place them on the table side-by-side touching each other. Now push them together with a little bit of force and slide one past the other while applying the force. You will find that they do not slide past each other very easily while applying a force to push them together. As you manage to force the bricks past each other, you may notice by feeling and hearing a vibration and a jerking type of movement. You have simulated an earthquake . Now set a small toy , a rubber eraser, a coin or other item on each of the bricks and do the experiment again. You can see that the objects bounce, fall and move about as the bricks slide past each other. Taadaa! You have created an earthquake in the toy world! Now place one of the bricks one on top of the other. Put some toys on top of the upper brick and slide the top brick across the bottom brick. This is called a 'thrust' fault when one piece of crust slides over top of the other. This is much mo re like what happened during the Sylmar earthquake. Are the toys O.K.? Unfortunately, this is what happens in the real world too. Real Life The vibration and jerky movements cause things to fall, bounce around and sometimes break.

The Circular Ruins by Jorge Luis Borges Essay -- Circular Ruins Jorge

â€Å"The Circular Ruins† by Jorge Luis Borges â€Å"Green is derived from blue and green will become more brilliant than blue† Chinese Proverb The Chinese have a proverb about the evolution of humanity, and in particular, the nature of intellectual relationships. Although the color green is composed from the color blue, it often shines with a more brilliant luster than its predecessor does. This is a metaphor for the pupil and teacher. The pupil learns knowledge from his teacher, but will outgrow his teacher and eventually surpass him in wisdom. I believe this accurately describes the progress of human knowledge throughout time. In fact, it is quite obvious how technology and science have improved as time goes on. There are dramatic changes even in the last decade as people take the discoveries of their predecessors and expand on those principles. Jorge Luis Borges’ short story, â€Å"The Circular Ruins,† also illustrates this idea of the descendents being superior to the ancestors. However, Borges additionally uses a creation story and the theme of recursiveness, which suggest that there is no single perfect being that created all, but that there are numerous beings that create, with each successive one becoming more powerful. This also implies that, contrary to Judeo-Christian belief, the perfect being is waiting to be created in the end and is not the creator in the beginning. â€Å"The Circular Ruins† can be interpreted in several ways, but the basic plot revolves around a man trying to create another being in his dreams. This creator, referred to as a â€Å"magician† in the story, is a god in that he creates a likeness of himself and gives it life. The magician’s desire to create this perfect son is a strong parallel to the Judeo-C... ... worshiped as gods. But in this succession of creators, we have an infinite line, so perhaps there will never be an end, and there never was a beginning, suggesting that there is no perfection or standard to uphold in the universe. Borges makes a point in establishing the recursiveness of creation in his story; my comparison to the repeated creation of more creators is solely an interpretation of the text. It is, however, interesting how the idea of the superior descendant is observable in the real world. By applying this to the idea of the infinite line of creation, the result is an idea that is in disagreement with worldly beliefs, but yet at the same time in agreement with the worldly observations. Moreover, the implications arising from the infinite line point to a somewhat disturbing, but very Nietzschean universe void of an absolute truth and perfection.

Compare and contrast two theories/models of relationships Essay

There are two main theories applied to relationships, Social Exchange Theory and Equity Theory underpin commonly used behavioural therapies such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, Enhanced Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Integrative Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. More recent studies in neuroscience and behaviour and the importance of language have led to the development of Relational Frame Theory and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy as an alternative approach. In this essay I will outline the relationship models comparing and contrasting them. I will also introduce and briefly touch on Relational Frame Theory and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy as an additional approach to couples counselling and offer considerations which an integrative therapist might need to take into account when offering counselling to couples. Social Exchange Theory explores interactions between two parties by examining the costs and beneï ¬ ts to each. The theory proposed by Homans in 1958 is not exclusively applied to relationships as it also explores all social systems and considers the power balance within those systems. The key point of the theory is that it assumes the two parties are both giving and receiving items of value from each other. Under this theory, relationships are only likely to continue if both parties feel they are coming out of the exchange with more than they are giving up–that is, if there is a positive amount of benefit for both parties involved. Homans’ work to define and understand society was based around the study of human behaviour in terms of cost and reward. This understanding of behaviour is recognised also in the work of Pavlow and Skinner. Homan later went on to apply his theory to relationships proposing in his Disruptive Justice hypothesis that as human beings we expect a relationship to be proportional and if the reward or reciprocity falls short of the cost we become dissatisfied and are more likely to end a relationship. However he also proposed that if one party perceives that the reward outweighs the cost provided but the other half of the relationship is content the relationship will be satisfactory. Homans (1958, P.606) â€Å"Social behavior is an exchange of goods, material goods but also  non-material ones, such as the symbols of approval or prestige. Persons that give much to others try to get much from them, and persons that get much from others are under pressure to give much to them. This process of influence tends to work out at equilibrium to a balance in the exchanges. For a person in an exchange, what he gives may be a cost to him, just as what he gets may be a reward, and his behavior changes less as the difference of the two, profit, tends to a maximum.† In relationships Homan proposed that the reward is more valuable to the individual if it reinforces our self esteem or provides social approval especially in areas of life where we feel insecure and we are drawn to a partner who provides this more than rewards or approval for things we already rate ourselves for. In return we provide the same kind of strokes to our partner reinforcing and boosting their esteem in areas in which they feel most insecure. This is referred to as the principle of satiation. The costs in a fulfilling relationship can be divided into three categories: Investment costs- mental energy and emotional investment , Direct costs – time, financial and material investments and Opportunity costs- personal sacrifices to benefit the relationship. Because all behaviour is costly in that it requires an expenditure of energy on the part of the individual, only those behaviours that are rewarded or that produce the least cost tend to be repeated. Thus, social exchanges take on an air of consistency in that patterns of rewards often remain stable in social relationships. Thibault and Kelley in 1959 developed a 4 stage model of long term relationships based on Homans social exchange theory research. Thibault and Kelley applied two basic concepts to their work. Firstly, that all human interaction is motivated by perceived rewards for the action and second relates to how that influences the nature of relationships. The four stages Sampling, Bargaining, Commitment and Institutionalisation describe how a relationship forms and settles. The theory is predominantly behaviourist and assumes that humans operate as rational beings making decisions based on costs and benefits and that their decision making is motivated by the desire to get basic individual needs met. The first stage in the model, Sampling, is exploring the costs and rewards of various interactions through a number of different friendships and relationships and observing various people in their relationships in order to discern what works and what doesn’t. Psychologists interpret the  social behaviour of adolescents and young people as they flit from one relationship/friendship to another as this sampling stage in action. Bargaining is the natural progression undertaken as a new relationship is under consideration. What’s in it for me? If I do/give this what will I get in return? At this stage attraction based around similar attitudes or constructs are explored with a view to establishing the viability of a possible relationship. Both parties might ask themselves ‘Is it going to be worthwhile investing in this?’ Commitment follows when the two parties know enough about each other to develop the ability to predict each others’ behaviour and therefore elicit reward/pleasure/satisfaction from each other. Institutionalisation is the final stage when the two parties know what to expect from each other and settle into established norms. Equity Theory was developed from Social Exchange Theory by Walster in 1978. Elaine Hatfield worked closely with Walster and Ellen Berscheid in the seventies to understand the human concept of social justice. She says According to Equity theory, people feel most comfortable when they are getting exactly what they deserve from their relationships—no more and certainly no less. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. Hatfield, E. & Rapson, R. L. Glyph International 2011. She also says of her work with Walster and Bercheid We believed that a concern with fairness was a cultural universal. We were convinced that during humankind’s long evolutionary heritage, a concern with social justice came to be writ in the mind’s â€Å"architecture† because such values possessed survival value. Such concerns were maintained, we thought, because behaving fairly continued to be a wise and profitable strategy in today’s world. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. Hatfield, E. & Rapson, R. L. Glyph International 2011. It is recognised that throughout history, societies have had different visions as to what constitutes â€Å"social justice,† â€Å"fairness,† and â€Å"equity† and that these differences still influence perspectives on what social  justice means to the individual and to different societies across the globe. Furthermore their ongoing research takes into consideration the current shifts within society towards gender equality and how this influences relationships. Equity Theory is essentially based around balance within a relationship and can be summarised by 4 key principles. 1.People will try to maximise reward and minimise unpleasant experience in a relationship 2.Rewards can be shared out in different ways and people will decide on what they agree to be a fair system 3.An unfair or inequitable relationship causes personal distress 4.A person in an inequitable relationship will attempt to restore balance and the degree to which the relationship is unfair the harder they will try to restore the balance. Both theories are based around the assumption that relationships develop out of a fair exchange or trading of costs and rewards. Equity Theory although it takes into account societal changes is less concerned with society and is more concerned with individuals and how they perceive justice. The main difference between the two theories is that where Exchange Theory would propose that people would leave a relationship as it is if they felt they were in the advantaged position where rewards are concerned, Equity Theory suggests that the person would be driven to restore the equity within an unbalanced relationship by either reducing their input or increasing their outputs. Exchange Theory is more concerned with under-benefit as a disadvantage but Equity Theory places a greater emphasis on both under-benefit and over-benefit. Under-benefits are likely to provoke a sense of anger and resentment and over-benefits are likely to provoke a sense of guilt. Either scenario can become unbearable to the party experiencing either anger or guilt resulting in them attempting to re-establish balance. If this does not appear to work, it is likely that the relationship will breakdown as an equilibrium has not been reached. Both theories can be useful tools for a therapist in couples counselling in order to discern where a couple is at within their relationship and to help them move towards a state of balance or equity when it has been lost. They both provide the basis from which to look at the behaviour of each  individual within a relationship, to consider how it might have changed and how levels of reciprocity have become distorted leading to the experience of over/under benefit and thus to create tools to realign the behaviour and expectations to help regain balance within the relationship as a whole. There have however been some criticisms of early studies of relationships because they do not consider individual developmental changes which occur in life and which may alter the balance in a relationship or place adequate emphasis on the effects of outside factors which influence an individual’s thinking and consequent behaviour within a relationship, such a family expectations, early role modelling, messages received and fused with about the self from others such as parents. This can be particularly relevant in terms of negative thinking, pain avoidant behaviours, rule following and rigid thinking. In terms of applying behaviour therapy to couples counselling the therapist will want to look at what interpretations a client is making about a situation and the beliefs they hold based on previous experience and how this then shapes their response or behaviour toward their partner. They will look at where the belief was formed through a process of where? When? Who? and What happened? questions in order to help reframe the past and detach it from the present thus helping the client’s view to change and become more rational in the current situation. In Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy a branch of CBT, using the ABC model, the theory distinguishes between rational and irrational beliefs and seeks to correct irrational beliefs which lead to self defeating behaviours. ‘People are not disturbed by things; rather they disturb themselves when they hold irrational beliefs about things. When they hold rational beliefs they respond healthily to things’ CBT tips for a fulfilling life Windy Dryden Hodder Education 2012 Studies of behaviour from the perspective of a Relational Frame Theory and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy can be applied to understanding relationships issues and provide a slightly different perspective  emphasising the nuances of language and how they affect function within a relationship and focussing on values and actions as a priority in terms of repairing harmony. RFT sees language and cognition as relational framing, an operant ability that develops through exposure to many kinds of verbal interactions . ‘The goal of integrative behavioural couples therapy is to ‘help couples shift the context, rather than just the content, of their interactions, embracing conflict as a part of relationships and working toward a greater understanding and acceptance of each other’ ACT & RFT in Relationships Dahl, Stewart, Martell & Caplan Context Press 2013 There are many similarities in this approach, for example applying RFT in the context of relationships considers how individuals derive expectations in relationships based on earlier experiences and from perspectives acquired in the past which lead to the generation of self rules and ideals of what the future ‘should’ look like and how a partner ‘should’ behave. The subtle difference lies in the 2 key elements of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, acceptance of psychological events and commitment to values. It offers the couple the opportunity to identify self defeating patterns of behaviour, encouraging clients to embrace the painful aspects of such negative thinking with self compassion and to accept that suffering and pain are intrinsic part of life and moreover relationship experience. The therapist will help the clients to identify values in all domains of life, perhaps through the use of a Values Compass which identifies 10 separate domains, Work, Leisure, Caregiving, Family, Intimate Relations, Community Involvement, Spirituality, Education and Personal Development, Health and Social network. Clients will be encouraged to identify the reinforcing qualities which support each domain and to then rate how highly they are attending to each domain. This exercise can help couples see where there might be imbalances. By associating each value with it’s reinforcing qualities the clients can see for themselves and for each other how balance in all domains is essential to maintain balance in their relationship or how a lack of balance might lead them to seek compensatory reinforcement from each other. By doing this exercise the individuals concerned can develop a greater understanding of  their needs and how they can get their needs met. In understanding why some areas of their lives have been neglected and recognising the self defeating behaviours which lead to this imbalance they develop self compassion and then extend this to compassion and acceptance for each other. In this kind of therapy couples will learn to recognise and apply flexibility of thought and action, self compassion, compassion, acceptance, mindfulness, self –as –context and values and committed action increasing the potential for balance within themselves and thus enabling a more supporting relationship wit h each other. Whatever approach a therapist takes there will be a recognition that the therapy will be more effective if it is holistic and integrative. The Chrysalis TIME model provides a sound basis from which to start all therapy. It is also essential for the therapist to consider the wider social implications and ethical issues surrounding relationships before proceeding with any kind of therapeutic intervention. Cultural differences, religious beliefs, geographic origins, social status, educational backgrounds and family history all influence how an individual perceives a successful relationship and set criteria and rules for that relationship and thus how they might expect therapy to help when things go wrong. One key consideration in couples counselling which is more relevant in westernised society today is that many relationships are founded on love – or an idea of love, whereas historically marriage contracts were based on other factors such as status, financial security etc. For many people entering into a new relationship one of the driving factors are the feelings and emotions derived from the behaviour of the other person. This as the basis for a relationship is not without its’ problems since initial highly charged emotions and feelings wane as a relationship develops and matures and deeper connections are necessary for quality and longevity. It is also essential that the therapist applies relevant learning of client centred counselling to ensure that the therapy is client led and balanced, so that neither party feels that the therapist is lacking a position of neutrality, whilst maintaining an empathic and understanding approach to both individuals. The skilled therapist will be aware of the power balance  between the 2 parties through careful observation of body language and choice of language by the clients and active attunement. They will maintain an approach of acceptance and non judgement even though their clients may not and will not be drawn by one over the other or allow one to dominate the sessions. All parties must feel safe, demonstrate a willingness to engage in the process and have a clear idea of, ideally, a shared goal for the therapy. An ethical therapist will not see couples clients separately or set up couples counselling where they have previously counselled one party.